Medical Engineering & Physics
Volume 32, Issue 7 , Pages 690-699 , September 2010

Welding methods for joining thermoplastic polymers for the hermetic enclosure of medical devices

  • Negin Amanat

      Affiliations

    • School of Physics, University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
    • Cochlear Ltd, Lane Cove, NSW, Australia
    • ,
  • Natalie L. James

      Affiliations

    • Cochlear Ltd, Lane Cove, NSW, Australia
    • ,
  • David R. McKenzie

      Affiliations

    • Applied and Plasma Physics, School of Physics, University of Sydney, Building A28, NSW 2006, Australia
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Tel.: +61 2 9351 3577; fax: +61 2 9351 7726.

Received 2 October 2009 ,Revised 18 February 2010 ,Accepted 12 April 2010.

References 

  1. Bowman L, Meindl JD. The packaging of implantable integrated sensors. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering. 1986;33:248–255
  2. Ko WH. Packaging of microfabricated devices and systems. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 1995;42:169–175
  3. Nichols MF. The challenges for hermetic encapsulation of implanted devices—a review. Critical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering. 1994;22:39–67
  4. Receveur RAM, Lindemans FW, de Rooij NF. Microsystem technologies for implantable applications. Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering. 2007;17:R50–R80
  5. El Khatib M, Pothier A, Crunteanu A, Blondy P. A novel packaging approach for RF MEMS switching functions on alumina substrate. Microsystem Technologies. 2007;13:1457–1461
  6. Roy R. Ceramic packaging for electronics. Key Engineering Materials. 1996;122–124:17–34
  7. Bronzino JD. The biomedical engineering handbook. 3rd ed.. CRC Press; 2006;
  8. Clark G. Cochlear implants: fundamentals and applications. 1st ed.. Springer-Verlag New York Inc.; 2003;
  9. Goycoolea MV. Latin American experience with the cochlear implant. In: 70th annual meeting of the Collegium-Oto-Rhino-Laryngologicum-Amiciriae-Sacrum (CORLAS). Salvador, Brazil. 2004;p. 468–473
  10. Scholz C. Perspectives on: materials aspects for retinal prostheses. Journal of Bioactive and Compatible Polymers. 2007;22:539–568
  11. Weiland JD, Liu WT, Humayun MS. Retinal prosthesis. Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering. 2005;7:361–401
  12. Yousefpour A, Hojjati M, Immarigeon JP. Fusion bonding/welding of thermoplastic composites. Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials. 2004;17:303–341
  13. Vasko K, Noller K, Mikula M, Amberg-Schwab S, Weber U. Multilayer coatings for flexible high-barrier materials. Central European Journal of Physics. 2009;7:371–378
  14. Choudalakis G, Gotsis AD. Permeability of polymer/clay nanocomposites: a review. European Polymer Journal. 2009;45:967–984
  15. Burridge E. ICIS Chemical Business, http://www.icis.com/Articles/2008/09/08/9153976/plastics-use-in-cars-rises-as-emissions-laws-get-tough.html; 2008 [accessed 14.09.09].
  16. Eruropean Commission for the Environment. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/transport/road.htm; 2009 [accessed 15.09.09].
  17. Tadmor Z, Cogos C. Principles of polymer processing. 2nd ed.. John Wiley & Sons Inc.; 2006;
  18. Ratner BD. Biomaterials science: an introduction to materials in medicine. 2nd ed.. Elsevier Inc.; 2004;
  19. Frazer RQ, Byron RT, Osborne PB, West KP, Frazer RQ, Byron RT, et al. PMMA: an essential material in medicine and dentistry. Journal of Long-Term Effects of Medical Implants. 2005;15:629–639
  20. Jagur-Grodzinski J. Polymers for tissue engineering, medical devices, and regenerative medicine. Concise general review of recent studies. Polymers for Advanced Technologies. 2006;17:395–418
  21. Ramakrishna S, Mayer J, Wintermantel E, Leong KW. Biomedical applications of polymer-composite materials: a review. Composites Science and Technology. 2001;61:1189–1224
  22. Kurtz SM, Devine JN. PEEK biomaterials in trauma, orthopedic, and spinal implants. Biomaterials. 2007;28:4845–4869
  23. Middleton JC, Tipton AJ. Synthetic biodegradable polymers as orthopedic devices. Biomaterials. 2000;21:2335–2346
  24. Stewart R. Medical plastics: new polymers offer advantages for medical devices and packaging. Plastics Engineering. 2005;60:20–27
  25. Baidya KP, Ramakrishna S, Rahman M, Ritchie A, Huang ZM. An investigation on the polymer composite medical device-external fixator. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites. 2003;22:563–590
  26. Cizek GR, Boyd LM. Imaging pitfalls of interbody spinal implants. Spine. 2000;25:2633–2636
  27. van Hooy-Corstjens CSJ, Aldenhoffa YBJ, Knetsch MLW, Govaert LE, Arin E, Erli H, et al. Radiopaque polymeric spinal cages: a prototype study. Journal of Materials Chemistry. 2004;14:3008–3013
  28. Vande Berg B, Malghem J, Maldague B, Lecouvet F, Vande Berg B, Malghem J, et al. Multi-detector CT imaging in the postoperative orthopedic patient with metal hardware. European Journal of Radiology. 2006;60:470–479
  29. Callister WD. Materials science and engineering. An introduction. 7th ed.. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 2007;
  30. Ghanbari H, Viatge H, Kidane AG, Burriesci G, Tavakoli M, Seifalian AM. Polymeric heart valves: new materials, emerging hopes. Trends in Biotechnology. 2009;27:359–367
  31. Kidane AG, Burriesci G, Cornejo P, Dooley A, Sarkar S, Bonhoeffer P, et al. Current developments and future prospects for heart valve replacement therapy. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B: Applied Biomaterials. 2009;88B:290–303
  32. Boateng JS, Matthews KH, Stevens HNE, Eccleston GM. Wound healing dressings and drug delivery systems: a review. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2008;97:2892–2923
  33. Tavakoli SM, Pullen DA, Dunkerton SB. A review of adhesive bonding techniques for joining medical materials. Assembly Automation. 2005;25:100–105
  34. Baldan A. Adhesively-bonded joints in metallic alloys, polymers and composite materials: mechanical and environmental durability performance. Journal of Materials Science. 2004;39:4729–4797
  35. Leggat PA, Smith DR, Kedjarune U. Surgical applications of cyanoacrylate adhesives: a review of toxicity. Anz Journal of Surgery. 2007;77:209–213
  36. Toriumi DM, O’Grady K. Surgical tissue adhesives in otolaryngology-head and neck surgery. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America. 1994;27:203–209
  37. Tseng YC, Tabata Y, Hyon SH, Ikada Y. In vitro toxicity test of 2-cyanoacrylate polymers by cell culture method. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 1990;24:1355–1367
  38. Umbrecht F, Muller D, Gattiker F, Boutry CM, Neuenschwander J, Sennhauser U, et al. Solvent assisted bonding of polymethylmethacrylate: characterization using the response surface methodology. Sensors and Actuators A: Physical. 2009;156:121–128
  39. Reitz WE, Oman RM. How to join plastics. Advanced Materials & Processes. 2000;158:49–52
  40. Ageorges C, Ye L, Hou M. Advances in fusion bonding techniques for joining thermoplastic matrix composites: a review. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 2001;32:839–857
  41. Amancio ST, dos Santos JF. Joining of polymers and polymer-metal hybrid structures: recent developments and trends. Polymer Engineering and Science. 2009;49:1461–1476
  42. Grewell D, Benatar A. Welding of plastics: fundamentals and new developments. International Polymer Processing. 2007;22:43–60
  43. Stokes VK. Joining methods for plastics and plastic composites—an overview. Polymer Engineering and Science. 1989;29:1310–1324
  44. Troughton MJ. Handbook of plastics joining: a practical guide. 2nd ed.. UK: The Welding Institute; 2008;
  45. Cantwell WJ, Davies P, Bourban PE, Jar PY, Richard H, Kausch HH. Thermal joining of carbon-fiber reinforced PEEK laminates. Composite Structures. 1990;16:305–321
  46. Cho BR, Kardos JL. Consolidation and self-bonding in poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK). Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 1995;56:1435–1454
  47. Shim MJ, Kim SW. Characteristics of polymer welding by healing process. Materials Chemistry and Physics. 1997;48:90–93
  48. Watson MN, Murch MG. Recent developments in hot plate welding of thermoplastics. Polymer Engineering and Science. 1989;29:1382–1386
  49. Nonhof CJ. Optimization of hot plate welding for series and mass production. Polymer Engineering and Science. 1996;36:1184–1195
  50. Nieh JY, Lee LJ. Hot plate welding of polypropylene. Part I: crystallization kinetics. Polymer Engineering and Science. 1998;38:1121–1132
  51. Nieh JY, Ni J, Lee LJ. Hot plate welding of polypropylene. Part II: process simulation. Polymer Engineering and Science. 1998;38:1133–1141
  52. Poopat B, Benatar A, Park JB. Comparative study of contact and non-contact hot plate welding of HDPE. In: 58th annual technical conference of the society of plastics engineers—plastics the magical solution (ANTEC 2000). Orlando. 2000;p. 1117–1121
  53. Potente H, Becker F. Weld strength behavior of laser butt welds. In: 57th annual technical conference of the society of plastics engineers—plastics bridging the millennia (ANTEC 99). New York City. 1999;p. 1402–1405
  54. Balkan O, Demirer H, Ezdesir A, Yildirim H. Effects of welding procedures on mechanical and morphological properties of hot gas butt welded PE, PP, and PVC sheets. Polymer Engineering and Science. 2008;48:732–746
  55. Marczis B, Czigany T. Polymer joints. Periodica Polytechnica Series Mechanical Engineering. 2002;46:117–126
  56. Chen YS, Benatar A. Infrared welding of polypropylene. In: 53rd annual technical conference of the societry of plastics engineers—the plastics challenger: a revolution in education (ANTEC 95). Boston. 1995;p. 1235–1238
  57. Potente H, Michel P, Heil M. Infrared radiation welding—a method for welding high-temperature resistant thermoplastics. In: 49th annual technical conference of the society of plastics engineers—plastics: rendez-vous with excellence (ANTEC 91). Montreal. 1991;p. 2502–2504
  58. Grimm RA, Yeh H. Infrared welding of thermoplastics. Colored pigments and carbon black levels on transmission of infrared radiation. In: 56th annual technical conference of the society of plastics engineers—plastics on my mind (ANTEC 98). Atlanta. 1998;p. 1026–1029
  59. Jones I. Laser welding for plastic components. Assembly Automation. 2002;22:129–135
  60. Chung YM, Kamal MR. Morphology of PA-6 vibration welded joints and its effects on weld strength. Polymer Engineering and Science. 2008;48:240–248
  61. Valladares D, Cakmak M. Initiation and development of the heat-affected zone in the vibration welding of polyvinylidene fluoride and its copolymers. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 2002;86:3377–3388
  62. Potente H, Becker F, Fiegler G, Korte J. Investigations towards application of a new technique on laser transmission welding. Welding in the World. 2001;45:15–20
  63. Acherjee B, Misra D, Bose D, Venkadeshwaran K. Prediction of weld strength and seam width for laser transmission welding of thermoplastic using response surface methodology. Optics and Laser Technology. 2009;41:956–967
  64. Georgiev GL, Baird RJ, McCullen EF, Newaz G, Auner G, Patwa R, et al. Chemical bond formation during laser bonding of Teflon FEP and titanium. Applied Surface Science. 2009;255:7078–7083
  65. Anantharaman S. Measurement of residual stresses in laser welded polycarbonate using photoelasticity. In: 61st annual technical conference of the society of plastics engineers (ANTEC 2003). Nashville. 2003;p. 1061–1065
  66. Woosman NM, Sallavanti RA. Achievable weld strengths for various thermoplastics using the clearweld process. In: 61st annual technical conference of the society of plastics engineers (ANTEC 2003). Nashville. 2003;p. 2522–2526
  67. Van de Ven JD, Erdman AG. Laser transmission welding of thermoplastics—Part I: temperature modeling and pressure. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. 2007;129:849–858
  68. Van de Ven JD, Erdman AG. Bridging gaps in laser transmission welding of thermoplastics. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering. 2007;129:1011–1018
  69. Stokes VK. Vibration welding of thermoplastics. 2. Analysis of the welding process. Polymer Engineering and Science. 1988;28:728–739
  70. Stokes VK. Vibration welding of thermoplastics. 3. Strength of polycarbonate butt welds. Polymer Engineering and Science. 1988;28:989–997
  71. Stokes VK. Vibration welding of thermoplastics. 4. Strengths of poly(butylene terephthalate), polyetherimide, and modified polyphenylene oxide butt welds. Polymer Engineering and Science. 1988;28:998–1008
  72. Stokes VK. Thickness effects in the vibration welding of polycarbonate. Polymer Engineering and Science. 1989;29:1683–1688
  73. Stokes VK. Strength of vibration-welded polycarbonate poly(butylene terephthalate) blend butt welds. Polymer. 1992;33:1237–1243
  74. Stokes VK. Comparison of vibration and hot-tool thermoplastic weld morphologies. Polymer Engineering and Science. 2003;43:1576–1602
  75. Stokes VK, Hobbs SY. Vibration welding of ABS to itself and to polycarbonate, poly(butylene terephthalate), poly(ether imide) and modified poly(phenylene oxide). Polymer. 1993;34:1222–1231
  76. Cakmak M, Robinette J, Schaible S. Structure development and dynamics of vibration welding of poly(ethylene naphthalate) from amorphous and semicrystalline precursors. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 1998;70:89–108
  77. Benatar A, Cheng Z. Ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics in the far-field. Polymer Engineering and Science. 1989;29:1699–1704
  78. Benatar A, Eswaran RV, Nayar SK. Ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics in the near-field. Polymer Engineering and Science. 1989;29:1689–1698
  79. Rani MR, Prakasan K, Rudramoorthy R. Study of different joints for ultrasonic welding of semicrystalline polymers. Experimental Techniques. 2009;33:36–42
  80. Liu SJ, Lin WF, Chang BC, Wu GM, Hung SW. Optimizing the joint strength of ultrasonically welded thermoplastics. Advances in Polymer Technology. 1999;18:125–135
  81. Chuah YK, Chien LH, Chang BC, Liu SJ. Effects of the shape of the energy director on far-field ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics. Polymer Engineering and Science. 2000;40:157–167
  82. Suresh KS, Rani AR, Prakasan K, Rudramoorthy R. Modeling of temperature distribution in ultrasonic welding of thermoplastics for various joint designs. Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 2007;186:138–146
  83. Tappe P, Potente H. New results on the spin welding of plastics. Polymer Engineering and Science. 1989;29:1655–1660
  84. Ageorges C, Ye L. Resistance welding of thermosetting composite/thermoplastic composite joints. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 2001;32:1603–1612
  85. Bates PJ, Tan S, Zak G, McLeod M. Shear strength and meltdown behavior of reinforced polypropylene assemblies made by resistance welding. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 2009;40:28–35
  86. Ageorges C, Ye L, Hou M. Experimental investigation of the resistance welding for thermoplastic-matrix composites. Part I: heating element and heat transfer. Composites Science and Technology. 2000;60:1027–1039
  87. Ageorges C, Ye L, Hou M. Experimental investigation of the resistance welding of thermoplastic-matrix composites. Part II: optimum processing window and mechanical performance. Composites Science and Technology. 2000;60:1191–1202
  88. Dube M, Hubert P, Gallet J, Stavrov D, Bersee HEN, Yousefpour A. Fatigue performance characterisation of resistance-welded thermoplastic composites. Composites Science and Technology. 2008;68:1759–1765
  89. Dube M, Hubert P, Yousefpour A, Denault J. Current leakage prevention in resistance welding of carbon fibre reinforced thermoplastics. Composites Science and Technology. 2008;68:1579–1587
  90. Stavrov D, Bersee HEN. Resistance welding of thermoplastic composites—an overview. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 2005;36:39–54
  91. Stavrov D, Bersee HEN, Beukers A. The influence of the heating element on resistance welding of thermoplastic composite materials. Society of Manufacturing Engineers—Technical Papers. 2003;1–10
  92. Wu CY, Benatar A. Microwave welding of high density polyethylene using intrinsically conductive polyaniline. Polymer Engineering and Science. 1997;37:738–743
  93. Staicovici S, Wu CY, Benatar A. Welding and disassembly of microwave welded HDPE bars. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites. 1999;18:35–43
  94. Ahmed TJ, Stavrov D, Bersee HEN, Beukers A. Induction welding of thermoplastic composites—an overview. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 2006;37:1638–1651
  95. Rudolf R, Mitschang P, Neitzel M. Induction heating of continuous carbon-fibre-reinforced thermoplastics. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 2000;31:1191–1202
  96. Adams RD, Comyn J, Wake WC. Structural adhesive joints in engineering. 2nd ed.. Chapham & Hall; 1997;
  97. Becker H, Gartner C. Polymer microfabrication technologies for microfluidic systems. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 2008;390:89–111
  98. Tsao CW, DeVoe DL. Bonding of thermoplastic polymer microfluidics. Microfluidics and Nanofluidics. 2009;6:1–16
  99. Becker H, Locascio LE. Polymer microfluidic devices. Talanta. 2002;56:267–287
  100. Mokwa W. Medical implants based on microsystems. Measurement Science and Technology. 2007;18:R47–R57
  101. Velten T, Ruf HH, Barrow D, Aspragathos N, Lazarou P, Jung E, et al. Packaging of bio-MEMS: strategies, technologies, and applications. IEEE Transactions on Advanced Packaging. 2005;28:533–546
  102. Najafi K. Packaging of implantable microsystems. IEEE Sensors 2007 Atlanta. 2007;28–31:58–63
  103. Georgiev DG, Sultana T, Mian A, Auner G, Herfurth H, Witte R, et al. Laser fabrication and characterization of sub-millimeter joints between polyimide and Ti-coated borosilicate glass. Journal of Materials Science. 2005;40:5641–5647
  104. Mahmood T, Mian A, Amin MR, Auner G, Witte R, Herfurth H, et al. Finite element modeling of transmission laser microjoining process. Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 2007;186:37–44
  105. Mian A, Newaz G, Georgiev DG, Rahman N, Vendra L, Auner G, et al. Performance of laser bonded glass/polyimide microjoints in cerebrospinal fluid. Journal of Materials Science-Materials in Medicine. 2007;18:417–427
  106. Mian A, Newaz G, Mahmood T, Auner G. Mechanical characterization of glass/polyimide microjoints fabricated using cw fiber and diode lasers. Journal of Materials Science. 2007;42:8150–8157
  107. Mian A, Newaz G, Vendra L, Rahman N, Georgiev DG, Auner G, et al. Laser bonded microjoints between titanium and polyimide for applications in medical implants. Journal of Materials Science-Materials in Medicine. 2005;16:229–237
  108. Mian A, Sultana T, Auner G, Newaz G. Bonding mechanisms of laser-fabricated titanium/polyimide and titanium coated glass/polyimide microjoints. Surface and Interface Analysis. 2007;39:506–511
  109. Newaz G, Mian A, Sultana T, Mahmood T, Georgiev DG, Auner G, et al. A comparison between glass/polyimide and titanium/polyimide microjoint performances in cerebrospinal fluid. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A. 2006;79A:159–165
  110. Newaz G, Sultana T, Nusier S, Herfurth HJ. Miniaturized samples for bond strength and hermetic sealing evaluation for transmission laser joints. Journal of Laser Micro Nanoengineering. 2008;3:186–195
  111. Mian A, Sultana T, Georgiev D, Witte R, Herfurth H, Auner G, et al. Postimplantation pressure testing and characterization of laser bonded glass/polyimide microjoints. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B: Applied Biomaterials. 2009;90B:614–620
  112. Ussing T, Petersen LV, Nielsen CB, Helbo B, Hojslet L. Micro laser welding of polymer microstructures using low power laser diodes. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology. 2007;33:198–205
  113. Truckenmuller R, Ahrens R, Cheng Y, Fischer G, Saile V. An ultrasonic welding based process for building up a new class of inert fluidic microsensors and -actuators from polymers. Sensors and Actuators A. 2006;132:385–392
  114. Truckenmuller R, Cheng Y, Ahrens R, Bahrs H, Fischer G, Lehmann J. Micro ultrasonic welding: joining of chemically inert polymer microparts for single material fluidic components and systems. Microsystem Technologies. 2006;12:1027–1029
  115. Kim J, Jeong B, Chiao M, Lin LW. Ultrasonic bonding for MEMS sealing and packaging. IEEE Transactions on Advanced Packaging. 2009;32:461–467
  116. Su YC, Lin LW. Localized bonding processes for assembly and packaging of polymeric MEMS. IEEE Transactions on Advanced Packaging. 2005;28:635–642

PII: S1350-4533(10)00085-8

doi: 10.1016/j.medengphy.2010.04.011

Medical Engineering & Physics
Volume 32, Issue 7 , Pages 690-699 , September 2010

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution